Activity 3.1- Agriculture 101

History of Agriculture

• Pre-Modern Agriculture

1. 10,000+ years ago, humans switched from hunter-gathering societies to complex civilizations.

2. Large scale agriculture develops in:

• Southwest Asia [9000 B.C.] (rye, emmer/einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, chickpeas, flax)

• Persian Gulf and around the Nile River; called the “Fertile Crescent” [7000 B.C.] (animal domestication of sheep, goats, and oxes)

• China [7000 B.C.] (rice and wheat)

• South America [3000-2700 B.C.] (maize, tomato, potato, pepper, squash, variety of bean)

3. [5500 B.C.] Intensive domestication of animals and crop production leads to the settlement of human populations in specific regions.

4. New agricultural techniques are developed.

5. New World colonization leads to:

• The Atlantic Slave Trade

• Triangular Trade

• Expansion of European powers in the Americas

• Moving Towards Modern Agriculture: The Green Revolution

1. Post WWII, agricultural production began to double at an increasing rate. 

2. Chemical warfare in WWII led to the development of agrochemicals. 

3. Industrialization of the agriculture industry led to:

• Genetic engineering for crop production

• Antibiotics and vitamins for livestock

• Raising animals in factories with controlled conditions

4. Industrial agricultural practices led to consequences, such as:

• Water pollution

• Pest resistance to pesticide 

• Weeds

• Changing environmental conditions 

Issues of Modern Agriculture

• Water Pollution from Fertilizers

1. Precipitation can carry fertilizer into the waterways, polluting them.

2. Nitrates and Phosphorus are transported via water, or soil, where they  can reach groundwater/larger bodies of water and:

• Boost plant growth

• Decrease oxygen levels in the water

• Cause fish/animal species to die off

• Be accidentally consumed by people

3. Contaminants in the water cause rapid algae growth, resulting in:

• Unsafe drinking water

• Less recreational area

• Decreased habitat for aquatic life

• Pesticides and Pesticide Resistance

1. “Herbicides” are used to control weed growth, but can also harm crops.

2. Genetically modified (GM)  crops are developed resistant to the common herbicide, glyphosate.

3. Increased use of GM has led to:

• Herbicide resistant weeds

• Major weed problems in certain regions (i.e. Canada)

4. Common class of insecticide used worldwide is called “neonicotinoids”. 

5. Large scale use of “neonicotinoids” leads to:

• Polluted waterways

• Death of “beneficial” insects, such as bees

• Climate Change

1. Agriculture and forestry contribute 24% of total greenhouse gas emissions.

2. Emissions occur from:

• Soil cultivation; releases carbon dioxide

• Nitrogen fertilizer; releases nitrous oxide

• livestock; releases methane

3. Agriculture, affected by climate change, can provide:

• Longer growing seasons in northern areas

• Greater crop productivity

4. Agriculture, affected by climate change, is challenged by:

• Increased number of pests and diseases

• More frequent extreme weather conditions

• Higher temperatures and more droughts 

• Soil Loss

1. Soil:

• Holds nutrients, water, and other beneficial things for crops to thrive

• Holds down the roots of plants

• Provides a means to move water from surface to subsurface, protecting against flooding

2. In the 1930s, the productive and nutrient-rich top layer of soil was lost due to extreme weather conditions.

3. Practices that contribute to soil loss include: 

• Cultivation of fields through tillage

• Leaving fields barren during a growing season

• Not planting trees, or removing plant materials from the soil

What is Sustainable Agriculture?

• Defining Sustainable Agriculture

1. Sustainable agriculture is known as “farming practices that consider ecological functions that are usually found in natural ecosystems”  (Environmental Sustainability Research Centre, 2017). 

2. Sustainable agriculture includes:

• Nutrient cycling

• Biodiversity

• Evolution 

• All life within the soil

3. There are a lot of methods, such as:

• “Slash and Burn Agriculture”

• Integrated pest management

• Intercropping

• Biodiversity maintenance 

• Food Security and Food Safety

1. Food nutrition/security exists when people have access to a sufficient amount of nutritious food that meets dietary needs.

2. “Rome Declaration on Nutrition” guarantees people’s rights to have quality food, and holds the government to prevent malnutrition.

3. “The Framework of Action” holds the government responsible for addressing food/nutrition issues.

4. A disconnect between consumer demands for healthy food and corporate priorities for larger profits, results in tension. 

• Complexity of the Agricultural and Food Production System

1. Agricultural/food production is complicated due to:

• A wide range of sellers, buyers, etc.

• Variety in who makes the food; from small farms to large corporations.

2. Global vs. Farmers Market:

• Global Market= producers are a part of a larger company that sells their product (i.e. Cargill)

• Farmers Market= producers sell directly to buyers/consumers. 

3. Buying from direct marketing channels (Farmers Market’s) lets consumers:

• Know what’s in the food

• Know how fresh it is

• Know where it came from

• Support local economies 

4. In Canada, farms are decreasing because of:

• Low income and high expenses 

• Globalization

• Free trade agreements

• Lack of successors 

5. “Farm women” play an important role in agriculture, and are the ones keeping family farms alive by contributing to farm and housework. 

Practices in Sustainable Agriculture

• Integrated Pest Management

1. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an environment friendly approach to controlling pests in agricultural areas. 

2. IPM is based on 3 steps:

• Inspection

• Monitoring

• reporting

3. Some IPM methods to decrease pest abundance:

• Removing clutter

• Removing food waste

• Getting rid of standing water

4. IPM pest control techniques include: 

• Trapping

• Hot/cold treatments

• Manual pest removal 

• Pesticide application (last resort)

5. Consequences of IPM use include: 

• Saving farmers money

• Protecting human health

• More labor intensive than conventional agriculture 

• Organic Farming through Intercropping

1. Intercropping is the practice of growing two or more crops within the same growing season.

2. Intercropping benefits include:

• Uses natural resources and greater water use efficiency 

• Increased/stable crop yields

• Replenishes soil nutrients through “cereal-legume” intercropping

• Erosion control

• Balanced labor distribution

3. Temporal vs. Spatial Intercropping

• Temporal= crops are planted in temporal succession, making it so they don’t have to be harvested at the same time

• Spatial= crops are arranged/planted in the field a specific way based on a number of factors

4. Organic based farmers must be certified through a nationally recognized organization.

5.  Organic farmers must be extra careful to make sure their products don’t get contaminated by:

• Building “buffer-strips” around crops 

• Regularly clean equipment and storage areas

• Enhancing Biodiversity in Agroecosystems

1. Diverse communities are more resilient than their counterparts.

2. Diversification improves crop system functions through resource partitioning.

3. Biodiversity can be increased through:

• Use of multiple crop cultivar 

• intercropping

4. Increased biodiversity benefits humans by:

• Carbon sequestration

• Pest/weed control

• Maintaining soil health

• Food production support

• New Trends: Diversified Agroecological Farming

1. Studies done by the International Union for Conservation of Nature indicate that agriculture is harmful to biodiversity.

2. With the many problems that agriculture brings, experts believe that an entirely new system would be better, with it being based on:

• Diversifying farms and farming landscapes

• Getting rid of chemical use

• Increasing biodiversity

• Simulating species interaction 

3. Agroecology that uses ecology to promote a more sustainable food production system. 

4. Concepts of agroecology include:

• Temporal and spatial diversification 

• Use of more diverse species 

• Labor-intensive systems

• Maximization of multiple outputs

• Low external outputs

• Case Study: Drinking Tea in a Healthier Environment

1. Tea, while normally considered healthy, is becoming increasingly associated with synthetic chemicals.

2. Due to the increased use, beneficial predators to pests are being wiped out, causing: 

• Pest outbreaks

• Excessive pesticide use

• Tea leaves becoming coated with harmful chemicals

3. In the 2000s, China switched to more organic/sustainable tea plantations through the use of:

• Tree/crop covers

• Yellow sticky traps

• Chemicals that attract natural predators of pests

• Case Study: But What About Fertilizers?

1. Chemical vs. Organic Fertilizers

• Chemical Fertilizer= made from mostly petroleum/rock, nutrient dense; causes soil and rock pollution

• Organic Fertilizer= made from organic material, such as food, garden, and animal waste; is biodegradable and environment friendly; requires microorganisms to break down organic matter

2. Agrominerals are a naturally occurring fertilizer found across the world, composed of elements found in most other fertilizers.

3. In northern Ontario, there is an agromineral called “carbonatite”, which is comprised of:

• Apatite (source of phosphorus)

• Biotite (potassium rich clay mineral)

• Calcite (reduces soil acidification)

References

• Environmental Sustainability Research Centre (ESRC). (2017). Sustainable agriculture, in Environmental sustainability in practice. http://brockuesrc.ca/environmental-sustainability-in-practice/sustainable-agriculture